• LATIN1 只能保存ASCII字符，又称ISO-8859-1。

• UTF-8 变长字节编码，一个字符需要使用1个、2个或者3个byte表示。由于中文通常需要3个字节表示，中文场景UTF-8编码通常需要更多的空间，替代的方案是GBK/GB2312/GB18030。

• UTF-16 2个字节，一个字符需要使用2个byte表示，又称UCS-2 (2-byte Universal Character Set)。根据大小端的区分，UTF-16有两种形式，UTF-16BE和UTF-16LE，缺省UTF-16指UTF-16BE。Java语言中的char是UTF-16LE编码。

• GB18030 变长字节编码，一个字符需要使用1个、2个或者3个byte表示。类似UTF8，中文只需要2个字符，表示中文更省字节大小，缺点是在国际上不通用。
  

static int encodeUTF8(char[] utf16, int off, int len, byte[] dest, int dp) {    int sl = off + len, last_offset = sl - 1;
    while (off < sl) {        char c = utf16[off++];        if (c < 0x80) {            // Have at most seven bits            dest[dp++] = (byte) c;        } else if (c < 0x800) {            // 2 dest, 11 bits            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0xc0 | (c >> 6));            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (c & 0x3f));        } else if (c >= '\uD800' && c < '\uE000') {            int uc;            if (c < '\uDC00') {                if (off > last_offset) {                    dest[dp++] = (byte) '?';                    return dp;                }
                char d = utf16[off];                if (d >= '\uDC00' && d < '\uE000') {                    uc = (c << 10) + d + 0xfca02400;                } else {                    throw new RuntimeException("encodeUTF8 error", new MalformedInputException(1));                }            } else {                uc = c;            }            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0xf0 | ((uc >> 18)));            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((uc >> 12) & 0x3f));            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((uc >> 6) & 0x3f));            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (uc & 0x3f));            off++; // 2 utf16        } else {            // 3 dest, 16 bits            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0xe0 | ((c >> 12)));            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((c >> 6) & 0x3f));            dest[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (c & 0x3f));        }    }    return dp;}

static int writeUtf16LE(char[] chars, int off, int len, byte[] dest, final int dp) {    UNSAFE.copyMemory(chars            , CHAR_ARRAY_BASE_OFFSET + off * 2            , dest            , BYTE_ARRAY_BASE_OFFSET + dp            , len * 2    );    dp += len * 2;    return dp;}


3
Java String的编码
●

static class String {    final char[] value;    final int offset;    final int count;}

static class String {    final char[] value;}

static class String {    final byte code;    final byte[] value;
    static final byte LATIN1 = ;    static final byte UTF16  = 1;}

比如如下是JDK8的String的一个构造函数的实现

public final class String {    public String(char value[]) {        this.value = Arrays.copyOf(value, value.length);    }}

在JDK8中，有一个构造函数是不做拷贝的，但这个方法不是public，需要用一个技巧实现MethodHandles.Lookup & LambdaMetafactory绑定反射来调用，文章后面有介绍这个技巧的代码。

public final class String {    String(char[] value, boolean share) {        // assert share : "unshared not supported";        this.value = value;    }}

1. 使用MethodHandles.Lookup & LambdaMetafactory绑定反射
2. 使用JavaLangAccess的相关方法
3. 使用Unsafe直接构造

Benchmark                          Mode  Cnt       Score       Error   UnitsStringCreateBenchmark.invoke      thrpt    5  784869.350 ±  1936.754  ops/msStringCreateBenchmark.langAccess  thrpt    5  784029.186 ±  2734.300  ops/msStringCreateBenchmark.unsafe      thrpt    5  761176.319 ± 11914.549  ops/msStringCreateBenchmark.newString   thrpt    5  140883.533 ±  2217.773  ops/ms

public static BiFunction<char[], Boolean, String> getStringCreatorJDK8() throws Throwable {   Constructor<MethodHandles.Lookup> constructor = MethodHandles.Lookup.class.getDeclaredConstructor(Class.class, int.class);   constructor.setAccessible(true);    MethodHandles lookup = constructor.newInstance(          String.class             , -1 // Lookup.TRUSTED             );        MethodHandles.Lookup caller = lookup.in(String.class);      MethodHandle handle = caller.findConstructor(                String.class, MethodType.methodType(void.class, char[].class, boolean.class)                );
    CallSite callSite = LambdaMetafactory.metafactory(            caller            , "apply"            , MethodType.methodType(BiFunction.class)            , handle.type().generic()            , handle            , handle.type()            );
    return (BiFunction) callSite.getTarget().invokeExact();}

    
4.1.2 JDK 11快速构造字符串的方法

public static ToIntFunction<String> getStringCode11() throws Throwable {    Constructor<MethodHandles.Lookup> constructor = MethodHandles.Lookup.class.getDeclaredConstructor(Class.class, int.class);    constructor.setAccessible(true);    MethodHandles.Lookup lookup = constructor.newInstance(            String.class            , -1 // Lookup.TRUSTED    );
    MethodHandles.Lookup caller = lookup.in(String.class);    MethodHandle handle = caller.findVirtual(            String.class, "coder", MethodType.methodType(byte.class)   );
    CallSite callSite = LambdaMetafactory.metafactory(            caller            , "applyAsInt"            , MethodType.methodType(ToIntFunction.class)            , MethodType.methodType(int.class, Object.class)            , handle            , handle.type()    );
    return (ToIntFunction<String>) callSite.getTarget().invokeExact();}

if (JDKUtils.JVM_VERSION == 11) {    Function<byte[], String> stringCreator = JDKUtils.getStringCreatorJDK11();
    byte[] bytes = new byte[]{'a', 'b', 'c'};    String apply = stringCreator.apply(bytes);    assertEquals("abc", apply);}

4.1.3 JDK 17快速构造字符串的方法

--add-opens java.base/java.lang.invoke=ALL-UNNAMED

public static BiFunction<byte[], Charset, String> getStringCreatorJDK17() throws Throwable {    Constructor<MethodHandles.Lookup> constructor = MethodHandles.Lookup.class.getDeclaredConstructor(Class.class, Class.class, int.class);    constructor.setAccessible(true);    MethodHandles.Lookup lookup = constructor.newInstance(           String.class            , null            , -1 // Lookup.TRUSTED    );
    MethodHandles.Lookup caller = lookup.in(String.class);    MethodHandle handle = caller.findStatic(            String.class, "newStringNoRepl1", MethodType.methodType(String.class, byte[].class, Charset.class)    );
    CallSite callSite = LambdaMetafactory.metafactory(            caller            , "apply"            , MethodType.methodType(BiFunction.class)            , handle.type().generic()            , handle            , handle.type()    );    return (BiFunction<byte[], Charset, String>) callSite.getTarget().invokeExact();}

if (JDKUtils.JVM_VERSION == 17) {    BiFunction<byte[], Charset, String> stringCreator = JDKUtils.getStringCreatorJDK17();
    byte[] bytes = new byte[]{'a', 'b', 'c'};    String apply = stringCreator.apply(bytes, StandardCharsets.US_ASCII);    assertEquals("abc", apply);}

4.2 基于JavaLangAccess快速构造

JavaLangAccess javaLangAccess = SharedSecrets.getJavaLangAccess();javaLangAccess.newStringNoRepl(b, StandardCharsets.US_ASCII);

4.3 基于Unsafe实现快速构造字符串

public static final Unsafe UNSAFE;static {    Unsafe unsafe = null;    try {        Field theUnsafeField = Unsafe.class.getDeclaredField("theUnsafe");        theUnsafeField.setAccessible(true);        unsafe = (Unsafe) theUnsafeField.get(null);    } catch (Throwable ignored) {}    UNSAFE = unsafe;}
////////////////////////////////////////////
Object str = UNSAFE.allocateInstance(String.class);UNSAFE.putObject(str, valueOffset, chars);

Object str = UNSAFE.allocateInstance(String.class);UNSAFE.putByte(str, coderOffset, (byte) );UNSAFE.putObject(str, valueOffset, (byte[]) bytes);

4.4 快速构建字符串的技巧应用：

如下的方法格式化日期为字符串，性能就会非常好。

public String formatYYYYMMDD(Calendar calendar) throws Throwable {    int year = calendar.get(Calendar.YEAR);    int month = calendar.get(Calendar.MONTH) + 1;    int dayOfMonth = calendar.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_MONTH);
        byte y0 = (byte) (year / 1000 + '0');    byte y1 = (byte) ((year / 100) % 10 + '0');    byte y2 = (byte) ((year / 10) % 10 + '0');    byte y3 = (byte) (year % 10 + '0');    byte m0 = (byte) (month / 10 + '0');    byte m1 = (byte) (month % 10 + '0');    byte d0 = (byte) (dayOfMonth / 10 + '0');    byte d1 = (byte) (dayOfMonth % 10 + '0');
    if (JDKUtils.JVM_VERSION >= 9) {        byte[] bytes = new byte[] {y0, y1, y2, y3, m0, m1, d0, d1};
        if (JDKUtils.JVM_VERSION == 17) {            return JDKUtils.getStringCreatorJDK17().apply(bytes, StandardCharsets.US_ASCII);        }
        if (JDKUtils.JVM_VERSION <= 11) {            return JDKUtils.getStringCreatorJDK11().apply(bytes);        }
        return new String(bytes, StandardCharsets.US_ASCII);    }
    char[] chars = new char[]{            (char) y0,             (char) y1,             (char) y2,             (char) y3,             (char) m0,            (char) m1,             (char) d0,             (char) d1    };
    if (JDKUtils.JVM_VERSION == 8) {        return JDKUtils.getStringCreatorJDK8().apply(chars, true);    }
    return new String(chars);}

public final class String {    private final char value[];        public char charAt(int index) {        if ((index < ) || (index >= value.length)) {            throw new StringIndexOutOfBoundsException(index);        }        return value[index];    }}

public final class String {    private final byte[] value;    private final byte coder;        public char charAt(int index) {        if (isLatin1()) {            return StringLatin1.charAt(value, index);        } else {            return StringUTF16.charAt(value, index);        }    }}

5.1 获取String.value的方法

1. 使用Field反射
2. 使用Unsafe

Benchmark                         Mode  Cnt        Score       Error   UnitsStringGetValueBenchmark.reflect  thrpt    5   438374.685 ±  1032.028  ops/msStringGetValueBenchmark.unsafe   thrpt    5  1302654.150 ± 59169.706  ops/ms

static Field valueField;static {    try {        valueField = String.class.getDeclaredField("value");        valueField.setAccessible(true);    } catch (NoSuchFieldException ignored) {}}
////////////////////////////////////////////
char[] chars = (char[]) valueField.get(str);

5.1.2 使用Unsafe获取String.value

static long valueFieldOffset;static {    try {        Field valueField = String.class.getDeclaredField("value");        valueFieldOffset = UNSAFE.objectFieldOffset(valueField);    } catch (NoSuchFieldException ignored) {}}
////////////////////////////////////////////
char[] chars = (char[]) UNSAFE.getObject(str, valueFieldOffset);

static long valueFieldOffset;static long coderFieldOffset;static {    try {        Field valueField = String.class.getDeclaredField("value");        valueFieldOffset = UNSAFE.objectFieldOffset(valueField);                Field coderField = String.class.getDeclaredField("coder");        coderFieldOffset = UNSAFE.objectFieldOffset(coderField);            } catch (NoSuchFieldException ignored) {}}
////////////////////////////////////////////
byte coder = UNSAFE.getObject(str, coderFieldOffset);byte[] bytes = (byte[]) UNSAFE.getObject(str, valueFieldOffset);

6
更快的encodeUTF8方法
●

public static int encodeUTF8(char[] src, int offset, int len, byte[] dst, int dp) {    int sl = offset + len;    int dlASCII = dp + Math.min(len, dst.length);
    // ASCII only optimized loop    while (dp < dlASCII && src[offset] < '\u0080') {        dst[dp++] = (byte) src[offset++];    }
    while (offset < sl) {        char c = src[offset++];        if (c < 0x80) {            // Have at most seven bits            dst[dp++] = (byte) c;        } else if (c < 0x800) {            // 2 bytes, 11 bits            dst[dp++] = (byte) (0xc0 | (c >> 6));            dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (c & 0x3f));        } else if (c >= '\uD800' && c < ('\uDFFF' + 1)) { //Character.isSurrogate(c) but 1.7            final int uc;            int ip = offset - 1;            if (c >= '\uD800' && c < ('\uDBFF' + 1)) { // Character.isHighSurrogate(c)                if (sl - ip < 2) {                    uc = -1;                } else {                    char d = src[ip + 1];                    // d >= '\uDC00' && d < ('\uDFFF' + 1)                    if (d >= '\uDC00' && d < ('\uDFFF' + 1)) { // Character.isLowSurrogate(d)                        uc = ((c << 10) + d) + (0x010000 - ('\uD800' << 10) - '\uDC00'); // Character.toCodePoint(c, d)                    } else {                        dst[dp++] = (byte) '?';                        continue;                    }                }            } else {                //                if (c >= '\uDC00' && c < ('\uDFFF' + 1)) { // Character.isLowSurrogate(c)                    dst[dp++] = (byte) '?';                    continue;                } else {                    uc = c;                }            }
            if (uc < ) {                dst[dp++] = (byte) '?';            } else {                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0xf0 | ((uc >> 18)));                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((uc >> 12) & 0x3f));                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((uc >> 6) & 0x3f));                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (uc & 0x3f));                offset++; // 2 chars            }        } else {            // 3 bytes, 16 bits            dst[dp++] = (byte) (0xe0 | ((c >> 12)));            dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((c >> 6) & 0x3f));            dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (c & 0x3f));        }    }    return dp;}

• 使用encodeUTF8方法举例

char[] chars = UNSAFE.getObject(str, valueFieldOffset);// ensureCapacity(chars.length * 3)byte[] bytes = ...; // int bytesLength = IOUtils.encodeUTF8(chars, , chars.length, bytes, bytesOffset);

• 测试代码
• 
  

public class EncodeUTF8Benchmark {    static String STR = "01234567890ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWZYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwzyz一二三四五六七八九十";    static byte[] out;
    static long valueFieldOffset;
    static {        out = new byte[STR.length() * 3];        try {            Field valueField = String.class.getDeclaredField("value");            valueFieldOffset = UnsafeUtils.UNSAFE.objectFieldOffset(valueField);        } catch (NoSuchFieldException e) {            e.printStackTrace();        }    }
    @Benchmark    public void unsafeEncodeUTF8() throws Exception {        char[] chars = (char[]) UnsafeUtils.UNSAFE.getObject(STR, valueFieldOffset);        int len = IOUtils.encodeUTF8(chars, , chars.length, out, );    }
    @Benchmark    public void getBytesUTF8() throws Exception {        byte[] bytes = STR.getBytes(StandardCharsets.UTF_8);        System.arraycopy(bytes, , out, , bytes.length);    }
    public static void main(String[] args) throws RunnerException {        Options options = new OptionsBuilder()                .include(EncodeUTF8Benchmark.class.getName())                .mode(Mode.Throughput)                .timeUnit(TimeUnit.MILLISECONDS)                .forks(1)                .build();        new Runner(options).run();    }}

• 测试结果

EncodeUTF8Benchmark.getBytesUTF8      thrpt    5  20690.960 ± 5431.442  ops/msEncodeUTF8Benchmark.unsafeEncodeUTF8  thrpt    5  34508.606 ±   55.510  ops/ms

public static int encodeUTF8(byte[] src, int offset, int len, byte[] dst, int dp) {    int sl = offset + len;    while (offset < sl) {        byte b0 = src[offset++];        byte b1 = src[offset++];
        if (b1 ==  && b >= ) {            dst[dp++] = b0;        } else {            char c = (char)(((b0 & 0xff) << ) | ((b1 & 0xff) << 8));            if (c < 0x800) {                // 2 bytes, 11 bits                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0xc0 | (c >> 6));                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (c & 0x3f));            } else if (c >= '\uD800' && c < ('\uDFFF' + 1)) { //Character.isSurrogate(c) but 1.7                final int uc;                int ip = offset - 1;                if (c >= '\uD800' && c < ('\uDBFF' + 1)) { // Character.isHighSurrogate(c)                    if (sl - ip < 2) {                        uc = -1;                    } else {                        b0 = src[ip + 1];                        b1 = src[ip + 2];                        char d = (char) (((b0 & 0xff) << ) | ((b1 & 0xff) << 8));                        // d >= '\uDC00' && d < ('\uDFFF' + 1)                        if (d >= '\uDC00' && d < ('\uDFFF' + 1)) { // Character.isLowSurrogate(d)                            uc = ((c << 10) + d) + (0x010000 - ('\uD800' << 10) - '\uDC00'); // Character.toCodePoint(c, d)                        } else {                            return -1;                        }                    }                } else {                    //                    if (c >= '\uDC00' && c < ('\uDFFF' + 1)) { // Character.isLowSurrogate(c)                        return -1;                    } else {                        uc = c;                    }                }
                if (uc < ) {                    dst[dp++] = (byte) '?';                } else {                    dst[dp++] = (byte) (0xf0 | ((uc >> 18)));                    dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((uc >> 12) & 0x3f));                    dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((uc >> 6) & 0x3f));                    dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (uc & 0x3f));                    offset++; // 2 chars                }            } else {                // 3 bytes, 16 bits                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0xe0 | ((c >> 12)));                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | ((c >> 6) & 0x3f));                dst[dp++] = (byte) (0x80 | (c & 0x3f));            }        }    }    return dp;}

• 使用encodeUTF8方法举例
• 
  

byte coder = UNSAFE.getObject(str, coderFieldOffset);byte[] value = UNSAFE.getObject(str, coderFieldOffset);
if (coder == ) {    // ascii arraycopy} else {    // ensureCapacity(chars.length * 3)    byte[] bytes = ...; //     int bytesLength = IOUtils.encodeUTF8(value, , value.length, bytes, bytesOffset);}

上面这些技巧都不是给新手使用的，使用不当会容易导致BUG，如果没彻底搞懂，请不要使用！

参考链接：

[1]https://github.com/alibaba/fastjson2/blob/2.0.3/core/src/main/java/com/alibaba/fastjson2/util/IOUtils.java

[2]https://github.com/alibaba/fastjson2/blob/2.0.3/core/src/main/java/com/alibaba/fastjson2/util/JDKUtils.java